The effectiveness of a resistance training programme to achieve a specific goal, whether that be maximal strength, power, growth (hypertrophy) or muscular endurance relies heavily on the acute programme variables that are applied; these include: i) choice of exercise, ii) order of exercise, iii) load or intensity, iv) volume of exercise and v) rest periods (Fry, 2004). It is these acute program variables that determine the magnitude to which the neuromuscular, neuroendocrine and musculoskeletal systems adapt to both acute and chronic resistance exercise (Bird et al, 2005).
Exercise intensity is generally acknowledged as the most important stimulus in designing optimum resistance training programmes. This however, can have many different definitions. For example, intensity can be associated with relative load, which is a percentage of one repetition maximum (1RM) based on the maximum load that can be lifted for one repetition only, or alternatively the resistance associated with a specific number of repetitions (repetition maximum continuum) that can be performed with a given submaximal load (i.e. 10RM, or a RM target zone such as 6-8RM). Repetition velocity may also be a key ingredient in controlling resistance training intensity. This is due to the inextricable relationship between relative load and mean repetition velocity which allows one to be estimated by the other with great precision (González-Badillo and Sánchez-Medina, 2010). Finally, perceived exertion scales have also been used to regulate resistance training intensities by subjectively quantifying rate of perceived effort (RPE). Robertson et al (2003) developed the OMNI Perceived Exertion Scale for Resistance Training (OMNI-RES) which has both verbal and mode specific pictorial descriptors distributed along a narrow response range of 0-10. This scale has been shown to be a useful methodology in controlling the intensity of resistance training (Robertson et al, 2008).
The significance of intensity during resistance training is of importance due to the specific relationship that exists between the training stimulus and the adaptive response (Campos et al, 2002). Therefore, the objective of this article is to present five different, individual workouts that specifically target different resistance training zones in order to achieve a particular outcome or enhance a particular capacity.
Choice/Order of Exercise
The fundamental exercises of this workout are the first four, which are performed in that order. All of these exercises are multi-joint compound exercises that require co-ordination and integration of multiple muscle groups. These exercises are considered to be more neurally demanding (Kraemer, Ratamess and French, 2002)and are generally accepted as being most effective for developing overall muscular strength compared to single joint isolation exercises (Kraemer et al., 2009). Considering that these compound exercises have been shown to be most effective at developing strength, maximising performance of these by performing them early in the workout may be best for optimal strength gains (Kraemer et al, 2009).
Intensity/Volume
This athlete has over three years of training experience. It has been suggested that for trained athletes’ maximum strength gains are elicited at intensities at or above 80% 1RM (Peterson, Rhea and Alvar, 2004). Although, it should be noted that strength gains can also be made using loads as low as 60% 1RM in individuals with less training experience (Rhea et al, 2003). The intensity for this workout is controlled using relative load (%1RM). This is obtained by performing a progressive strength test for each of the fundamental exercises during a previous testing session. The use of RPE is used to control the intensity of the accessory exercises. The limitation to using RPE is that it requires the athlete to be familiarised with the scale. This can be achieved by programing familiarisation sessions where OMNI-RES RPE scale anchored procedures are explained in order to properly reflect the RPE of the whole body after performing each exercise.
Rest Periods
A full recovery is needed between sets in order to fully re-establish force production capabilities; fatigue can be experienced during maximal strength exercise following rest intervals that are too short. This can result in a reduced discharge rate of motor units, therefore less force application. To avoid this a three-minute rest period (or longer) allows almost complete ATP-PCr restoration, which is the dominant energy system during maximal strength training.
Expected Outcomes
During maximal strength training the goal is to generate the greatest amount of force in the intended direction of movement. This is achieved by increasing agonist activation as much as possible, reducing antagonist co-activation and activating synergist muscles appropriately to ensure efficient co-ordinated movement (Carroll et al, 2012). Training at this intensity, for this athlete, will ensure the maximal recruitment of high threshold fast twitch motor units resulting in high adaptation of the central nervous system (CNS). High CNS adaptation includes improvement of neuromuscular co-ordination resulting in adequate inhibition of the antagonist muscles which decreases their ability to oppose the movement (Bompa and Buzzichelli, 2015). Although adaptation of the CNS predominates this training intensity, due to the mechanical stress that that musculature is placed under, a degree of hypertrophy may also be expected in less trained athletes; as this is a stimulus for muscle protein synthesis.
Choice/Order of Exercise
This workout will utilise a complex training method. This consists of a heavy, high intensity exercise coupled with a biomechanically similar plyometric exercise utilising post activation potentiation (PAP). PAP is the phenomenon that describes how a high intensity resistance exercise creates an optimal training state for the subsequent plyometric exercise, resulting in an enhanced muscle force output in that plyometric exercise (Scott and Docherty, 2004). It has been suggested that this technique is beneficial for developing rate of force development and dynamic power output (Ebben and Watts, 1998).
Each strength exercise is coupled with a ballistic exercise. The ballistic exercises are arranged in cluster sets, with 30 seconds rest after every 3 repetitions (9 repetitions per set in total). It has been suggested that cluster sets allow for greater power outputs compared to traditional set configurations and may be best suited for explosive exercises (Haff et al, 2008). This concept allows for each repetition to be performed with the highest quality in an attempt to maximise power output throughout the entire set, while also providing adequate volume for adaptation.
Intensity/Volume
It is accepted that a positive PAP effect is achievable with moderate (>60% 1RM) to high intensity (85% 1RM) or maximal intensity (90% 1RM) loads (Comyns et al, 2007), with a maximum effect appearing to be elicited from moderate loads (60-85% 1RM) (Wilson et al, 2013). With this athlete displaying an advanced training age, an intensity of 80-85% 1RM is used for the preloading exercise.
Velocity is used to control the intensity of the preload exercise. This is achieved by performing a maximal progressive strength test for each strength exercise (during a testing session), and monitoring velocity at each given relative load with the use of an accelerometer attached to the arm (Balsalobre-Fernández et al, 2016). By performing each repetition with maximum intent, a velocity profile can be established for a given exercise which then allows a velocity to be associated with a given relative load. The velocity profile for each preload exercise can be viewed in appendix A. Velocity has been shown to have a strong relationship with %1RM, therefore the velocity obtained from the first repetition of a set can be used to indicate the relative intensity of that load (González-Badillo and Sánchez-Medina, 2010). For example, as 0.5 m/sec is associated with this athletes 80%1RM in back squat, the load is adjusted until this velocity is reached. A velocity cut off of 10% is applied which means that as soon as the mean repetition velocity of the first repetition drops by 10% the set is terminated. This is provided by immediate feedback from the accelerometer via an iPad device. This velocity cut off ensures that metabolic fatigue is avoided; with the capacity being trained being explosive strength, fatigue avoidance is important.
The optimal load, or the load which maximises peak power output during jumping exercises is approximately 30% of maximum dynamic strength (1RM + body mass). For this athlete with a 1RM in back squat of 130Kg and body mass of 78Kg this represents an overload of 37% when performing body weight jumps. The intensity of the drop-jump in complex 2 is controlled by drop height. The optimal drop height is established in a testing session to identify the drop height which maximises jump height, which for this athlete was 30cm.
To control intensity of the power exercises an OMNI-RES RPE scale was used. Naclerio et al (2011) showed that it is possible to use perceived effort to control intensity during lower body power exercises. The suggested zone was an initial RPE of between 1 and 3 (expressed immediately after the first repetition) and a final RPE of no greater than 4. This will again avoid the accumulation of fatigue and allow a high-power output on all repetitions.
Rest Periods
In order to induce PAP, the rest interval between the preload exercise and the power exercise is a key component. Optimal PAP will only be evident within a given window of opportunity which is very much individualised to the athlete. Therefore, in order to obtain the optimum rest period to potentiate performance, a test session is suggested. During a test session, this athlete presented with an increase in performance of the power exercise 4 minutes after the preloading exercise, therefore this rest duration was selected.
Expected Outcomes
This form of training will improve the rate of force development of the athlete meaning that high amounts of force can be applied very quickly. Whereas strength training aims to recruit as many high threshold fast twitch motor units as possible, power training is concerned with an increase in the discharge rate of these fast twitch motor units. The neural adaptations from explosive strength training improve intermuscular co-ordination with the main goal to shift the force-time curve to the left so that the neuromuscular system is trained to display force explosively (Bompa and Buzzichelli, 2015).
Choice/Order of Exercises
This workout comprises of weightlifting exercises or their derivatives, as these exercises are considered highly specific to actual sports performance as they involve compound movements that require multiple muscle and joint co-ordination and specifically fast movement velocity (Baker, 1996). These types of exercise are very well suited to team sport athletes such as rugby players (especially front rowers) as they are often required to generate high power outputs against heavy loads; for example, when tackling. The hang power clean and hang power snatch were used in this workout as the technique is relatively easy to learn compared to the execution of the full lifts, while still including the peak power phase of the lift (second pull). The accessory exercises are both anti-extension core exercises that complement the fundamental lifts as these involve predominantly hip extension. Therefore, providing some balance by training the anterior core muscles.
Intensity/Volume
Training at the optimal load has been suggested as the most effective method for improving maximal power (Wilson et al, 1993) although it has been shown that this can be a very individual response and can occur anywhere from 60%1RM to 90%1RM in hang power clean (Comfort et al, 2012). Therefore, to determine this the athlete would perform a progressive maximal test to determine 1RM while also wearing an accelerometer to establish a velocity profile for these fundamental exercises. Peak power can be calculated using the equation P = F x V, where P = power, F = force and V = velocity; this is provided by algorithms built into the accelerometer. Once the optimal load is identified for each exercise this, along with velocity is used to control intensity. The velocity associated with the optimal load is used to begin the set, with a velocity cut off of 10% to terminate the set. A decrease greater than 10% of maximum velocity has been associated with a change from power towards more endurance related strength (Tidow, 1995). The cut-off is provided by immediate feedback from the accelerometer via an iPad device. The combined use of velocity cut-off and cluster sets would ensure that each repetition was of a high quality and that a high-power output was maintained throughout the whole set. To control intensity of the accessory exercises and OMNI-RES RPE scale was used with initial RPE (after first repetition) of 4 and a final RPE of 8.
Rest Periods
Each fundamental exercise consisted of 4-5 sets of 6 repetitions performed in clusters of 2 repetitions, using a 30 second pause in between clusters. A full recovery of at least 3 minutes is provided at the end of the set, which would allow for near full replenishment of ATP and PCr, the main energy substrates of the working set.
Expected Outcomes
The expected outcomes of a training cycle including workouts such as this would be an increase in the rate of force development and power output. Also, an increase in intermuscular co-ordination could be expected, therefore highlighting that adaptations to this type of training to be predominantly to the central nervous system. An increase in strength may also be expected as a consequence of the previously mentioned outcomes, and also muscle protein synthesis may be activated as a result of the mechanical stress exerted on the muscles.
Choice/Order of Exercise
This workout is a full body workout for a novice trainee. It is part of an anatomical adaptation phase which will prepare the muscles and tendons for the heavier loads that will be used in the ensuing phases. The exercises are performed as a circuit, alternating upper and lower body, with a brief rest periods in between each station. A multilateral approach is adopted here, where all muscle groups are targeted regardless of whether they are specific to the sport or not.
Intensity/Volume
The repetition continuum and RPE are used to control intensity during this workout. The initial workout will begin with 20 repetitions of each exercise and 2 complete circuits in total. Throughout the course of the mesocycle the repetitions may decrease to 12-15 per exercise as the intensity increases meaning an increase in load. This will provide a progressive overload and prepare the athlete for the ensuing maximum strength or hypertrophy phase to follow. An increase in the number of circuits (up to 3-4) may also provide further stimulus for progression.
Rest Periods
There is only 30 seconds rest allocated in between exercises and a 2-3 minute rest after each completed circuit. The short rest periods in between exercises prevents full recovery, providing a potent metabolic response and accumulation of fatigue.
Expected Outcome
This workout will result in a high metabolic response due to the higher repetitions performed and reduced rest periods in between exercises, resulting in a predominance for the lactic acid and aerobic energy systems to provide the energy during the workout. Throughout the training phase the body will adapt to tolerate the build-up of lactic acid therefore the buffering capacity of the muscle to remove lactate will improve. This athlete could expect to experience both an increase in strength and also muscle mass due to the high mechanical and metabolic stress that would accumulate. An increase in the oxidative capacity of the muscle is also likely due to the high aerobic demand as a result of the short rest periods. This means an increase in the size and number of mitochondria and oxidative enzymes within the muscle.
Choice/Order of Exercise
This workout is part of a 3-day split routine that works all major muscle groups during each session; a split routine allows for more exercises to be performed without an excessive increase in training time because the exercises are split over a number of days. As this workout consists of training chest, arms and core, the second session would comprise of back, shoulders and triceps and the third - lower body. Exercises for the large/main muscle group (or multi-joint exercises) are performed before proceeding to the smaller muscle groups (or single joint exercises) in the workout. The rationale for this is that performing large muscle group, multi-joint exercises first in the workout has been shown to produce significant elevations in anabolic hormones (Volek et al, 1997).
Intensity/Volume
The repetition continuum is used to control intensity of this workout, with the athlete working to 12RM on each exercise. The goal of the athlete is to increase lean body mass therefore utilising moderate loads, high repetitions and short rest intervals have been suggested to be most effective. An initial and final RPE value will also help to guide the intensity, with an initial RPE of 4 (after the first repetition) and a final RPE of 8-10. It has been suggested that multiple sets are more beneficial than single set training in eliciting hypertrophy therefore this approach is taken.
Rest Periods
Short rest periods of 1-2 minutes coupled with moderate loads have been shown to result in the greatest anabolic hormonal response (Kraemer et al, 1990). The acute hormonal response is considered extremely important to elicit hypertrophy. This differs from the longer rest periods allocated during maximal strength or power workouts because the explicit objective of hypertrophy training is to produce an anabolic environment.
Expected Outcomes
The outcome of a series of workouts using this intensity, will result in muscular hypertrophy. Throughout the mesocycle repetitions should vary from 6-12RM to allow adequate mechanical stress of the musculature involved, but prevent the athlete from entering a more endurance light training zone. The combination of mechanical loading (moderate/heavy loads) with metabolic stress (shorter rest periods that do not allow full recovery) will result in a series of intracellular events that ultimately upregulates gene expression and protein synthesis. Working with this intensity and short rest intervals have been shown to induce a greater acute elevation in Growth Hormone and testosterone (Fleck and Kraemer, 1997).
Conclusion
An optimal dose response relationship exists in resistance training in order to achieve specific adaptations. An important consideration before the commencement of any resistance training program is the initial training status or training age of the athlete; for example, novice trainers are likely to respond favourably to any programme whereas athletes with a higher training age will need to be more specific and follow a more structured strength and conditioning programme.
The five workouts presented here have shown how intensity and volume can be manipulated to achieve different goals. When developing maximal strength novice athletes may see gains at loads of 50-60% 1RM whereas it appears that greater loading is necessary for more experienced athletes with greater that 80% 1RM required to elicit neural adaptations. Developing explosive strength or power can be done using light or heavy loads. Identifying the optimum load during this training zone would appear to be beneficial as this allows the athlete to train at an intensity at which peak power occurs. Using light loads 0% 1RM (body weight) has been shown to produce peak power during ballistic exercises such as jump squats, whereas peak power using the Olympic lifts occurs at around 70-90% 1RM. High movement velocities with sub maximal loading are required to develop power, and the intent to move the load explosively is critical during execution of these exercises.
The development of strength and power is guided more towards adaptation of the central nervous system, which differs from the training of endurance training zones as these tend to be more metabolically challenging. The higher repetitions and shorter rest intervals results in both a higher metabolic and mechanical stress. Training at these intensities therefore tends to result in greater structural/metabolic adaptations in the form of hypertrophy and an increased oxidative capacity of the muscle as a result of increased mitochondria, oxidative enzyme activity and buffering capacity of the muscle cell.
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